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Article In Conference |
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Effective Learning Environments سيضاف لاحقا |
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Arabic |
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Workshop Means to Implement the Document of Views of Prince Abdullah Bin Abdulaziz on Higher Education, KAAU, Jeddah (Dhu Al-Hijjah 1425H/ February 2005 A.D.)
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Effective Learning Environments
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
Teaching and Learning Department, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA.
rfouad@vt.edu
ABSTRACT. New developments in the science of learning raise important
questions about the design of learning environments – questions that suggest
the value of rethinking what is taught, how it is taught and how it is assessed.
The paper will discuss the importance of designing an effective learning
environment that encompasses four interrelated teaching aspects, knowledge,
learner, assess and community centered learning environment (see figure
below) and the role of culture in such environments.
Knowledge centered is how students can need to work on themselves and
organize their knowledge that is accessible in appropriate contexts.
Learned centered is when students make connection between their previous
knowledge and their current knowledge. It’s the study of how students
construct new knowledge and how they interpret new information.
Assess centered is the need of training students to be able to assess
themselves in the class thus improving their quality of thinking and learning.
Community centered is the values and norms that students possess which
reflects the value of learning and how they interact receive feedback and
learn.
The paper will present;
1. How people learn in general focusing on teacher-student relation in class.
2. Instructional styles and delivery methods which encourages interactive
learning environments rather than passive learning environments.
3. Recommendations on how to achieve alignment between culture and each
of the learning environments
Introduction
As a result of the research from the past 30 years, the views of effective learning have
shifted from the benefits of drill and practice to a focus on students’ understanding and
application of knowledge. (How People Learn, 2000, page xi). Research on expertise in
areas such as chess, history and science, demonstrates that the experts’ ability to think
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
186
and solve problems depends strongly on a rich body of knowledge about the subject
matter. (e.g. Chase and Simon, 1973, Chi et al., 1981; deGroot, 1965).
Excerpted from a presentation at NCRELs 1992, in Lisle, Illinois, John Dewey said,
You cannot become a great teacher unless you are able to illustrate from the experience
of your students what it is you want them to understand exactly. Consequently, we need
to speak the language of the students. We have to know something about their history.
Weve got to be able to illustrate it in a way that they understand it."
Teachers will need to put several aspects into account;
• Cultural differences can affect students comfort level in working collaboratively
instead of individually. Differences are also reflected in the background
knowledge that students bring to a new learning situation (Moll, Tapia, &
Whitmore, 1993).
• Students conceptions of what it means to be intelligent can affect their
performance. Students who think that intelligence is a fixed entity are more
likely to be performance oriented as opposed to learning oriented; they want to
look good rather than risk making mistakes while learning. These students are
more likely to give up when tasks become difficult. In contrast, students who
think that intelligence is malleable are more willing to struggle with challenging
tasks and are more comfortable with risk (Dweck, 1989; Dweck & Legget,
1988).
• Attention should be given to each students individual progress and develop
appropriate tasks which further facilitate deeper understanding of the material.
For instance, students can be presented with challenging material that they can
manage; that is, the problems are demanding enough to maintain engagement,
but not so difficult as to lead to discouragement. This approach demonstrates
teachers understanding of their students knowledge, skill levels, and interests
(Duckworth, 1987).
The paper will discuss how teachers can integrate culture when designing
effective learning environments that optimize the characteristics of being, learner,
knowledge, assessment and community centered.
The first section will talk about ways people learn in general, the second section
will pinpoint the traditional means of learning and the third section will discuss how to
go about designing an effective learning atmosphere for both teachers and students.
A) The Ways People Learn
Effective education strategies deliberately consider the various ways in which
people learn and are evident in how well students draw on their existing knowledge and
competencies as they master new skills and acquire new information. Given this, the
development of effective strategies needs to be grounded in and informed by the
research on teaching and learning.
The following three findings about how people learn are supported by solid
research and have important implications for education practice:
Effective Learning Environments 187
(i) Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works
If students initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp new
concepts and information presented in the classroom, or they may learn the material for
purposes of test taking but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom. Prior
understanding in students at any level can impede their ability to learn contradictory
ideas unless they are given the chance to explore the errors in their initial beliefs.
Recommendations for Teachers
• Draw out their students existing knowledge through classroom tasks and
conditions that reveal students thinking;
• Use preconception as the foundation for students to further understand the
subject matter; and
• Use frequent formative assessments to make students understandings
apparent to themselves, their peers, and their teachers. These assessments
are more useful in promoting learning with understanding than are tests
measuring students ability to repeat facts or demonstrate isolated skills.
Schools of education can promote teachers ability to work with students
preconceptions by helping teachers to; 1) identify predictable preconceptions that make
mastery of subject matter challenging, 2) recognize unpredictable preconceptions, and
3) help students to build on their preconceptions by challenging them and replacing
them when appropriate.
(ii) To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students need a foundation of
factual knowledge, an understanding of facts and ideas in the context of a
conceptual framework, and the ability to organize them in ways that enable
retrieval and application
Research comparing the performance of novices and experts, in addition to
research on learning and transfer, demonstrates that experts draw on an extensive and
richly structured information base. But accessing factual information is not enough. The
key to expertise is the mastery of concepts that allows for specialized learning and
enables the transformation of a set of facts into usable knowledge.
Experts organize information into meaningful patterns that facilitate eventual
retrieval for problem solving. And unlike the simple acquisition of factual knowledge,
thoroughly understanding concepts facilitates the transfer of learning to new problems.
Recommendations for Teachers
This finding suggests that in-depth coverage of fewer topics that enables learning of key
concepts is preferable to broad and superficial coverage of subject-related topics.
Teachers, consequently, need
• A substantial knowledge base in a variety of subjects,
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
188
• Familiarity with the processes of inquiry,
• An understanding of the relationship between information and the concepts that
help organize information in a discipline, and
• A grasp of the processes in students conceptual development.
Thus, assessment tools that measure both deep conceptual understanding and
factual knowledge and are aligned with the above approaches to teaching must be
systematically developed.
(iii) Strategies can be taught that allow students to monitor their understanding and
progress in problem solving
Research on the performance of teachers reveals that they monitor their
understanding carefully by; 1) making note of what additional information is needed, 2)
deciding whether new information is consistent with what they already know; and 3)
determining appropriate revisions in their understanding and then cognitive processes, if
any, so that they advance their understanding.
This metacognitive approach functions as an internal dialogue to consider
alternative solutions to problems and whether the one chosen will lead to the desired
end. The strategies involved in this deliberate monitoring are part of a habit of mind or
disposition of inquiry, and can be successfully taught in the context of subject matter. In
teaching these strategies, teachers model both the monitoring questions and
observations and facilitate classroom discussion with the ultimate goal of fostering
independent monitoring and learning in their students.
Recommendations for Teachers
• Integrate teaching in metacognitive skills into the curriculum in a variety of
subject areas, and
• Explicitly emphasize and model the internal inquiry process in order to enhance
students ability to learn independently.
B) Traditional Learning Environments
Some classrooms have traditional and, at times, inadequate classroom techniques
that are not successful. Teachers may continue to use these techniques because; 1) many
teachers learn autobiographically (Lortie, 1975) and in difficult situations may abandon
their new teaching techniques and in favor of the techniques that were used to teach
them, and 2) lack of professional support, a sense of professional community, and staff
development opportunities makes it more difficult for teachers to learn and implement
new techniques.
Classrooms that have focused on basic skills often present information in a
fragmented and disconnected way. New cognitive research has shown that these
approaches do not provide environments that will help students learn complex thinking
skills;
Effective Learning Environments 189
• Fragmented skill development is less successful than skill development within a
context of solving more complex problems.
• Fragmented knowledge is more difficult to connect to broader understandings of
subject matter.
• To help students become engaged learners and increase student understanding,
teachers should provide in-depth curricula and authentic instruction is one
method that can be used in this situation.
• Teachers should emphasize understanding rather than coverage of factual
information.
• In-depth projects that spend time looking at ideas or concepts will be more
engaging.
C) The Four Cornerstones of Effective Learning
To create a successful active learning environment, both faculty and students must
make adjustments to what has been their respective “traditional” role in the classroom.
Traditional here refers to the fact that most students have spent the majority of their
school career in passive learning environments in which faculty were disseminators of
information, and students were required to memorize information or use specified
algorithms to ‘solve problems’.
For the instructor who is committed to promoting active learning, the challenge
lies in helping students understand the necessity of becoming active colleagues in
learning. This process can be facilitated if the curriculum includes exercises to direct
students’ attention to a number of issues that impact their learning.
a) Learned centered refers to an environment which pays careful attention to the
knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs that learners bring to the educational setting. It
involves teaching practices that has been called “culturally responsive”, “culturally
compatible” and “culturally relevant”. Can also be referred to “diagnostic teaching”
(Bell et al. 1980) since teachers recognize the importance of building on the conceptual
and cultural knowledge that students brings with them to class.
Perspectives on Learning Environments.
Source: Bransford et al. (1998)
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
190
To integrate students preconceptions about subject matter while it simultaneously
promotes a better understanding of students, the following questions should be taken
into account;
o What does the learner bring to the learning setting (prior knowledge) and how
do they connect it with new knowledge?
o Does learners’ belief affect how they interpret new information?
o Does current knowledge help or hamper learning?
o Are teachers aware of the learner’s background and what steps do they
undertake to effectively connect new ideas to their students’ prior knowledge?
In such a learner-centered environment, faculty become facilitators of learning
and students become active participants, engaging in a dialogue with their colleagues
and with the instructor.
Four major aspects that teachers need to focus on in a learner-centered
environment are students’ interaction, communication, and building mental models.
To encourage interaction teachers can include activities like distributing cards to
students and asking questions like “What is your student’s job in this course?” and
“What is the instructor’s job in this course?” etc. From the answers, a discussion will be
initiated between teachers and students, thus the teachers will be able to determine the
students thinking and the student will be introduced to the types of interaction expected
in an active learning environment. However, these exercises represent a first step. They
are not sufficient to ensure continued student participation in the class room. By
conducting these or similar exercises, faculty is, in effect, expressing a commitment to
facilitate active learning within the classroom. They must recognize this commitment
and act accordingly.
Students will continue to participate only as long as course or curricular activities
fulfill the promise of providing an interactive environment that is learner-centered. It is
important to recognize that examinations and other assessment tools fall into the
category of course activities that must be consistent with the commitment to active
learning. Examinations that only require recall of facts rather than application of factual
information to new situations can undermine the instructor’s attempt to maintain student
participation in the classroom. The message received by students from inappropriate
exams is that “performance in this class is determined in the same way as in classes
where I just sit and listen, so why should I go through the work of testing my mental
models?”.
Another issue to consider is communication. The success of any interactive
environment depends on the ability of the participants to communicate effectively.
There is a growing diversity in first languages spoken by students and faculty. This, of
course, raises a number of challenges related to establishing a common language in
which to communicate. However, even within a common language, there can be
diversity of interpretation that can lead to diversity in the mental models resulting from
a conversation. The first step to effective verbal communication in the classroom is
ensuring that students recognize that what they “hear” is not always what was said and
that they must be willing to seek clarification whenever doubt occurs. Recognition of
Effective Learning Environments 191
this fact is critical because communication is one way that mental models are tested.
Thus elective communication is essential if students and instructor are to reach a
common understanding of the phenomena being discussed. Below is an example of
bridging communication gaps:
Students of a biology department are shown a short video of an athletic performing. The
class is then divided into groups of three to four students each, and the groups are directed to
“Describe what kind of information you would seek if you wanted to understand what is going
on in [the athletes] body when he performs.” The instruction is repeated, and the groups are
given -10 min to complete the task. Before proceeding with a discussion of the video designed to
emphasize the integrative nature of the basic sciences, each group is asked to describe the
assigned task.
This exercise was used on several occasions in both student and faculty workshops. In
one student workshop, six different descriptions of the task were elicited from eight groups of
students. The responses ranged from “make a list of topics” to “design experiments and
describe the kinds of measurements that you would make.” Each student in the room heard the
same words spoken at the same time. Each student heard the words two times. Yet, the groups
interpreted the words differently. On each occasion that we have used this exercise, similar
results were obtained, and members of the “class” were surprised by the diversity in meaning
attributed to the directions.
The third important aspect is acknowledging the mental model of students. Few
students realize that interpretation of nearly all information (i.e., their mental models)
depends on past experience, and, because each member of the class has had different
life experiences, each student integrates “new” information into a unique conceptual
framework. Furthermore, these mental models are modified with the acquisition of new
relevant data. Recognizing this fact helps students appreciate the need for discourse as
they build and test mental models of physiological systems. This, in turn, leads to a
greater willingness to participate in the type of discourse that characterizes an
interactive (active) learning environment, example;
Students view a short videotaped segment showing a bird preening its feathers amid
bleached logs and dune grass on a patch of sand. The sound track is that of an isolated ocean
cove and includes the sound of waves and the sounds of gulls. The students were divided into
groups and asked what they make up of the following video. A discussion ensues in which
students are asked to explain how they arrived at their conclusions regarding the scene (i.e.,
their mental model of their observations) and what they would look for in a second viewing that
might further confirm their conclusion (i.e., how they would test their mental model).
The scene is then shown again, only this time; the view broadens to reveal that the bird is
part of a display in an aquarium. The ensuing discussion focuses on how the group would
interpret the scene if they viewed it for a third time, that is, how their mental models of the scene
have been modified in light of the most recent data.
This simple exercise generates considerable discussion about the factors that
influence interpretation of what is seen and heard. Evidence will show that students’
interpretation of language is not the only factor that plays an important role in the
process of building mental models. Experience is also an important factor. Students
report that they had not realized the diversity among classmates of mental models
(interpretations) of a seemingly simple scene. In addition, they voice a new appreciation
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
192
for the need to communicate with colleagues and faculty (i.e., seek clarification) when
dealing with new information and new situations.
In summary, by deciding to implement an active learning environment in the
classroom, faculty enters into an implicit contract with students. Under the terms of that
contract, the instructor becomes the “coach” whose responsibilities include helping
students to understand why they should agree to “play the game” ensuring that course
activities follow the “rules of the game” and reassuring students that, although “playing
the game” is not as easy as being a spectator, the goal of understanding and applying
information can only be reached by continuing to be an “active player”.
b) Knowledge centered is how students can need to work on themselves and organize
their knowledge that is accessible in appropriate contexts. Knowledge and learner
centered instruction tends to overlap each other, so to distinguish between each concept
the following questions should be addressed;
o How does this type of instruction help students use their current knowledge and
skills to think and solve problems?
o How do we help students learn and understand new knowledge verses learning a
set of disconnected facts and skills?
o How much information should students be exposed to in order not to result in
developing disconnected facts or skills rather than connected knowledge?
Learning with understanding is important because it makes new learning easier
(i.e., it supports the transfer of knowledge to different situations). Learning with
understanding is also harder and more time-consuming than simply memorizing. Many
curricula fail to support learning with understanding because they present an array of
disconnected facts in a short period of time. Similarly, tests often reinforce memorizing
rather than understanding. A knowledge-centered environment, however, provides the
tools for in-depth study and assesses students understanding rather than their
knowledge of disconnected facts. Furthermore, it incorporates the teaching of
metacognitive strategies that facilitate future learning.
While students interest or engagement in a task is important, it does not guarantee
that students will acquire the various types of knowledge that will support new learning.
Knowledge-centered environments, therefore, consider other factors besides
engagement as the primary index of successful teaching (Prawaf, Remillard, Putnam, &
Heaton, 1992). "These environments also recognize that there are important differences
between tasks and projects that "encourage hands-on doing and those that encourage
doing with understanding" (How People Learn: Bridging Research and Practice, 1999,
p. 21). According to Greeno (1991), the knowledge-centered environment emphasizes
the latter.
Writing help students clarify, defend, develop, and explain their thinking and
communicate their ideas to others. Reading helps students to make connections between
prior knowledge and knew knowledge.
Assignment were students are asked to read a chapter and analyze it, is
considered one best technique to gain understanding were the student will address new
Effective Learning Environments 193
issues and think about it. Several actions will take place during this process. First the
student will gather all the facts and link it to previous experience or prior knowledge to
understand the concept at hand. Sometimes even reading the facts twice can give
alternative thoughts. Then writing down the analysis via linking these facts will
organize ones thought and make a linkage between the facts at hand.
Group work helps students collaboratively build new ideas that take alternative
perspectives into account. There are many forms of group work, which can include
activities like reading and analyzing papers or chapters, or a group project, or a
problem at hand that requires scientific solutions or even coaching assignments where
one student coaches another student thus enhancing teaching skills. Through group
work communication, collaboration, interpersonal skills are developed and these are
lifelong learning skills which are important learning objectives.
c) Assessment centered is the need of training students to be able to assess themselves
in the class thus improving their quality of thinking and learning. Teachers and students
need to deal with the questions below to improve their teaching and learning skills
respectively;
o Is feedback fundamental to learning?
o Do students need opportunities for formative assessment that allow for revision
and improvement of the quality of their thinking and understanding?
o If the learning goal is to enhance understanding and applicability of knowledge,
is it sufficient to provide assessments that focus primarily on memorizing facts
and formulas or not?
Formative assessments help both teachers and students monitor progress. Equally
important, they permit teachers to; (1) grasp their students preconceptions, (2)
understand where each student is along the continuum from informal to formal thinking,
and (3) design curriculum and instruction accordingly.
Another important characteristic of formative assessments is their learnerfriendliness.
Rather than requiring students to quickly memorize information for a quiz
which will result in a grade that ranks them with respect to their classmates, these
assessments provide students with opportunities to revise and improve their thinking
(Vye et al., 1998), help them see their own progress over the course of weeks or
months, and assist teachers in identifying potential problems in students critical literacy
and comprehension that may need to be remedied.
Activities where teachers ask students to write their reflections (includes personal
thoughts, activities carried out, collection of fact) at the end of each class session can
be an assessment activity where the teachers become aware of what the student had
gained from the day activities and information received. Students will then receive
feedback from the teacher on what they have written thus helping the student to be
aware of the areas in which improvement needs to be made.
Dr. Randa Abdelmagid and Prof. Tom Sherman
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Other activities are quizzes where two students work together in coaching each
other to solve the quizzes. This helps the students also realize whether they have learnt
and understood the lectures.
Assessment also includes teachers evaluation forms which students can fill in
occasionally, questions can include, what information or activity was beneficial, what
part of the curriculum needs improvement, what other activities need to be included in
the lecture etc. The teacher will then determine whether the instructional methods and
information provided are benefiting the students and according improve the areas of
weakness.
d) Community centered is the values and norms that students possess which reflects
the value of learning and how they interact to receive feedback and learn. Culture
adaptability is an important issue when studying in a multicultural learning setting so to
achieve such a setting, questions like below should be considered;
o Does the learning environment promote a sense of community?
o Are most activities outside of school based in community settings, teams etc?
o Does community interaction allow more opportunity for motivation, interaction,
and feedback?
Since learning is influenced in fundamental ways by its context, promoting
student achievement via their community requires the development of norms for the
classroom, and the outside world that both support and inform core learning values.
In some classrooms, the norms may require that students build their own
information base; others may encourage academic risk taking and provide opportunities
for students to make mistakes, obtain feedback, and revise their thinking. Educational
norms must also support students comfort in revealing their preconceptions about a
subject, their questions, and their progress toward understanding new conceptual
constructs related to the subject.
Similarly, teachers must design classroom activities and help students to promote
the kind of intellectual camaraderie and attitudes toward learning that build a sense of
community. These activities may take the form of students solving problems together by
building on each others knowledge, asking questions to clarify explanations, and
suggesting differing solutions (Brown & Campione, 1994). Thus, the research indicates
that cooperation and argumentation in problem solving enhance cognitive development
and are factors in promoting student achievement (Evans, 1989; Goldman, 1994;
Habermas, 1990; Kuhn, 1991; Moshman, 1995a; 1995b; Newstead & Evans, 1995;
Salmon & Zeitz, 1995; Youniss & Damon, 1992).
Lave & Wegner (1991) found that a community-centered approach also supports
teachers efforts to establish a community of learners among themselves. Such a
community encourages questioning and can become a model for creating new ideas that
builds on the contributions of individual members. Community membership can
produce in teachers a sense of excitement and ownership of new ideas to apply to theory
and practice which they can transfer to teaching and learning in their classroom.
Effective Learning Environments 195
All the activities mentioned above adopt community-based initiatives since
students and teachers are all from different culture, social, educational background so
there will be always exchange of knowledge, ideas and beliefs which makes learning a
very interactive activity for both parties. The most important thing is for students and
teachers to be cultural sensitive of others so a cultural orientation session at the
beginning of the first lecture will help bridge the culture barrier built from prior
experience.
A key aspect is the idea of aligning goals for learning with what is taught, how it
is taught and how it is assessed. Without this alignment it is difficult to know what is
being learned. Students might be learning valuable information but one cannot tell
unless there is an alignment between what they are learning and the assessment of that
learning. Similarly students maybe learning things that others don’t value unless
curricula and assessments are aligned with the broad learning goals of communities
(Lehrer and Shumow, 1997). In conclusion all the above factors mutually overlap and
influence each other so teachers need to promote coordination among activities to
design effective learning environments for the students |
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Publishing Year |
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2005 AH
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Added Date |
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Saturday, January 10, 2009 |
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